Turning Point - Cold War
The Cold War is the name given to the relationship that developed primarily between the USA and the USSR after World War Two. The Cold War was to dominate international affairs for decades and many major crises occurred - the Cuban Missile Crisis, Vietnam, Hungary and the Berlin Wall being just some. For many the growth in weapons of mass destruction was the most worrying issue.
Do note that USSR in 1945 was Russia post-1917 and included all the various countries that now exist individually (Ukraine, Georgia etc) but after the war they were part of this huge country up until the collapse of the Soviet Union (the other name for the USSR). Logic would dictate that as the USA and the USSR fought as allies during World War Two, their relationship after the war would be firm and friendly. This never happened and any appearance that these two powers were friendly during the war is illusory.
Before the war, America had depicted the Soviet Union as almost the devil-incarnate. The Soviet Union had depicted America likewise so their ‘friendship’ during the war was simply the result of having a mutual enemy - Nazi Germany. In fact, one of America’s leading generals, Patton, stated that he felt that the Allied army should unite with what was left of the Wehrmacht in 1945, utilise the military genius that existed within it (such as the V2’s etc.) and fight the oncoming Soviet Red Army. Churchill himself was furious that Eisenhower, as supreme head of Allied command, had agreed that the Red Army should be allowed to get to Berlin first ahead of the Allied army. His anger was shared by Montgomery, Britain’s senior military figure.
So the extreme distrust that existed during the war, was certainly present before the end of the war……..and this was between Allies. The Soviet leader, Joseph Stalin, was also distrustful of the Americans after Truman only told him of a new terrifying weapon that he was going to use against the Japanese. The first Stalin knew of what this weapon could do was when reports on Hiroshima got back to Moscow. So this was the scene after the war ended in 1945. Both sides distrusted the other. One had a vast army in the field (the Soviet Union with its Red Army supremely lead by Zhukov) while the other, the Americans had the most powerful weapon in the world, the A-bomb and the Soviets had no way on knowing how many America had.
So what exactly was the Cold War?
In diplomatic terms there are three types of war.
- Hot War: this is actual warfare. All talks have failed and the armies are fighting.
- Warm War: this is where talks are still going on and there would always be a chance of a peaceful outcome but armies, navies etc. are being fully mobilized and war plans are being put into operation ready for the command to fight.
- Cold War: this term is used to describe the relationship between America and the Soviet Union 1945 to 1980. Neither side ever fought the other - the consequences would be too appalling - but they did ‘fight’ for their beliefs using client states who fought for their beliefs on their behalf e.g. South Vietnam was anticommunist and was supplied by America during the war while North Vietnam was pro-Communist and fought the south (and the Americans) using weapons from communist Russia or communist China. In Afghanistan, the Americans supplied the rebel Afghans after the Soviet Union invaded in 1979 while they never physically involved themselves thus avoiding a direct clash with the Soviet Union.
Cuban Missile Crisis
The one time this process nearly broke down was the Cuban Missile Crisis. In 1961, a crises that developed as a result of Cuban dictator Fidel Castro’s decision to allow the Soviet Union to base nuclear missiles in Cuba. Upon discovery, the United States and President Kennedy (JFK)confronted the Soviet Union and demanded the missiles be removed. For nearly two weeks, nuclear war was imminent. Fortunately, diplomacy succeeded and crisis was averted.
Cuban Missile Crisis Timeline
Monday, October 15
A U-2 reconnaissance aircraft revealed several SS-4 nuclear missiles in Cuba. Evening confirmation to National Security Advisor George Bundy, but President Kennedy not informed until next day to “avoid jeopardizing secrecy”.
Tuesday, October 16 Crisis began. President Kennedy convened his Executive Committee (ExComm) to consider America's options: (1) single, surgical airstrike on the missile bases; (2) an attack on various Cuban facilities; (3) a comprehensive series of attacks and invasion; (4) a blockade of Cuba. Robert McNamara, Secretary of Defense, outlines three broad options: (1) “political”, involving communications with Fidel Castro and Premier Khrushchev; (2) “part political, part military”, involving a blockade of weapons and open surveillance; (3) “military”, involving an attack on Cuba and missile sites. Debated, but no decision.
Wednesday, October 17 An SS-5 IRBM site, the first of three to be identified, was detected in Cuba, with an impact range of 2,200 nautical miles. Soviet embassy official Georgi Bolshakov relayed message to Robert Kennedy (RFK) that arms being sent to Cuba for defensive purposes only. Later it was revealed that Bloshakov was not aware of MRBMs and IRBMs.
Thursday, October 18 Questions were raised about the morality of an airstrike – would it be considered a Pearl Harbor in reverse? President Kennedy met with Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko and advised him that America would not tolerate Soviet missiles in Cuba. Gromyko denied the presence of any Soviet weaponry in Cuba, and stated that Soviet assistance to Cuba “pursued solely the purpose of contributing to the defense capabilities of Cuba.” Most ExComm members supported the blockade, but consensus broke down in meeting with Kennedy. CHAMA Dominic Airdrop test over Johnston Island area. 1.59 Megaton yield Hydrogen bomb test.
Friday, October 19 Independent working groups were established to develop blockade and airstrike options, drafting speeches for each plan and outlining possible contingencies. Proponents of airstrike shifted support to blockade, Theodore Sorensen wrote speech for Kennedy on blockade.
Saturday, October 20 President Kennedy returned to Washington (under guise of illness) to discuss the discovery of additional Soviet missiles in Cuba. Kennedy confirmed blockade was only option compatible with American principles. Adlai Stevenson suggested withdrawing missiles in Turkey and evacuating Guantanamo. This proposal attacked by several participants, Kennedy very critical. CHECKMATE Dominic High Altitude test on Missile test over Johnston Island Area. Low Kiloton yield.
Sunday, October 21 Another U-2 flight discovered bombers and cruise missile sites along Cuba’s northern shore. President Kennedy gave final approval for a naval quarantine of Cuba. Kennedy asked the press not to report the story until he addressed the public personally.
Monday, October 22 Foreign heads of government were briefed on the crisis. President Kennedy addressed the nation in a 17-minute televised speech and announced his plan to implement a naval quarantine of Cuba. US military alert was set at DEFCON 3 (increased alert). High Altitude Russian Nuclear Test at Kapustin Yar Hydrogen Bomb on Rocket. Yield Approx. 300 Kilotons
Tuesday, October 23 The OAS (Organization of American States) supported the decision to quarantine Cuba, by the end of the day all US naval vessels were in place. Reconnaissance photos revealed that Soviet missiles were ready for launch. Fidel Castro placed Cuban armed forces on their highest alert. Quarantine line moved from 800 miles to 500 miles to give USSR more time to analyse their position.
Wednesday, October 24 Soviet ships reached the quarantine line, but received radio orders from Moscow to hold their positions. McNamara outlined the dangerous military situation, highlighting the presence of a Soviet submarine shadowing the Soviet ships approaching the quarantine line. Secretary General of the UN, U Thant, sent identical messages to the US and the USSR governments urging them to “refrain from any action which may aggravate the situation and bring with it the risk of war.”
American military forces were instructed to set DEFCON 2 - the first time in US history – in order to prove the readiness of the US to engage with the USSR if need be.
Thursday, October 25 CIA director, John McCone, reported that some of the missiles in Cuba were now operational. US Ambassador Adlai Stevenson confronted the Soviets at the UN but they refused to answer. US reviewed the movement of ships toward the quarantine line and potential US responses.
Friday, October 26
The CIA reported that the construction of the missile sites was continuing and accelerating. Kennedy started to believe that quarantine in itself would not cause the Soviet government to remove its missiles, and only an invasion or trade would succeed. Kennedy agreed to increase the frequency of low-level flights over Cuba from twice per day to once every two hours.
The State Department received a private letter from Khrushchev, almost certainly composed by Khrushchev himself. It proposed a settlement, stating that the Soviets would not bring more armaments to Cuba, and would remove their missiles if President Kennedy publicly guaranteed the US would not invade Cuba.
RFK met secretly with Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin (unknown to ExComm) and agreed, after a phone call to the president, that the removal of US missiles from Turkey was negotiable as part of a comprehensive settlement.
Khrushchev received a cable from Castro urging a nuclear first strike against the US in the event of an invasion of Cuba. BLUEGILL TRIPLE PRIME Dominic test High altitude on Thor IRBM over Johnston Island area. Low Kiloton yield
Saturday, October 27 ExComm received a second letter from Khrushchev stating that, in addition to a public promise not to invade Cuba, the U.S. remove its missiles from Turkey. Extensive debate amongst the ExComm members in which Kennedy stated that to go to war would be “an insupportable position” when a trade was on offer. One U-2 spy plane accidentally flew over Russian air space, another was shot down over Cuba. ExComm assumed the attack was authorize by the USSR to escalate the crisis (later evidence revealed it was a decision made by local field commanders).
Concern amongst ExComm that a trade would weaken the NATO alliance, and lay the ground for future forced trades. The idea emerged to ignore Khrushchev’s second letter and respond to the first on the advice of Llewellyn Thompson, a Soviet specialist participating in ExComm.
Kennedy, McNamara, RFK, Bundy, Rusk, Thompson and Sorensen met in the Oval Office and agreed to respond to Khrushchev’s second letter orally through Dobrynin. They agreed to tell him that if the Soviet missiles were not removed, there would be military action against Cuba. If the missiles were removed, the US would give a nonintervention pledge, and would remove the Jupiter missiles in Turkey once the conflict was resolved, as long as there would be no public or explicit deal about this. Concern about this being leaked to the press or to NATO was so acute that not even the other ExComm members were told about this additional assurance.
Dobrynin and RFK had a carefully worded meeting in which they agreed on the secret deal. Kennedy’s letter was transmitted to Moscow. Castro responded to U Thant’s letter, agreeing to cease work on the missiles provided the US lifted its blockade.
ExComm met in the evening to review options if the letter and diplomatic negotiations did not work. McNamara confided to RFK that the US needed to be prepared to take over the Cuban government and for a Soviet reprisal in Europe.
CALAMITY Dominic Airdrop over Johnston Island area by B-52 Hydrogen bomb test. Yield 800 Kilotons.
Sunday, October 28 A new message from Khrushchev, that essentially terminated the missile crisis, was broadcast on Radio Moscow. He announced the dismantling of Soviet missiles in Cuba and did not insist on his demands concerning the removal of US missiles from Turkey.
Most ExComm members reportedly were relieved at the outcome; however, the Joint Chiefs of Staff were disappointed – Curtis Le May suggested the US “go in an make a strike on Monday anyway.” Fidel Castro was not consulted or informed of the decision beforehand and cursed Khrushchev, publicly stating in a speech at the University of Havana a few days later that Khrushchev lacked “cojones” (balls). High Altitude Russian Nuclear Test conducted at Kapustin Yar. Hydrogen Bomb on Rocket. Yield approx. 300 Kilotons.
Monday, October 29 President Kennedy ordered US ships to remain on the quarantine line and authorized continuation of low-level reconnaissance flights, although U-2 missions were not authorized.
Wednesday, November 21 Just over a month after the crisis began, President Kennedy terminated the quarantine when Khrushchev agreed after several weeks of tense negotiations at the UN to withdraw Soviet IL-28 nuclear bombers from Cuba.
So why were these two super powers so distrustful of the other?
| America | Soviet Union |
| Free elections | No elections or fixed |
| Democratic | Autocratic / Dictatorship |
| Capitalist | Communist |
| ‘Survival of the fittest’ | Everybody helps everybody |
| Richest world power | Poor economic base |
| Personal freedom | Society controlled by the NKVD (secret police) |
| Freedom of the media | Total censorship |
This lack of mutually understanding an alien culture, would lead the world down a very dangerous path - Berlin, Korea, the Arms Race, Hungary, Cuba, Vietnam. It also lead to the development of weapons of awesome destructive capability and the creation of some intriguing policies such as MAD - Mutually Assured Destruction.
M.A.D.
Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) is a doctrine of military strategy and national security policy in which a full-scale use of high-yield weapons of mass destruction by two or more opposing sides would cause the complete annihilation of both the attacker and the defender. No one would win and they would both be destroyed. This strategy led to a lessening of tensions known as detente'.
NATO
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
After World War II the countries of Western Europe found themselves too weak politically and militarily to prevent the spread of the communist "iron curtain" on a national level. The alliance of France and the United Kingdom through the Brussels Treaty was found to be minuscule when compared to the Communist Soviet Union. Very little time passed before this weakness was realized and Western Europe turned to a more inclusive North Atlantic Treaty, an agreement that involved a total of 12 nations including the United Kingdom and the United States. NATO was officially established on April 4, 1949 with the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty. The Western European powers relied on the massive nuclear arsenal of the United States to deter a Soviet ground invasion. Eventually NATO technology rendered the power of Soviet Union’s ground forces irrelevant. After the fall of communism the need for a military alliances diminished and NATO was transformed from a military force to a political force.
Warsaw Pact
Warsaw Pact (originally Warsaw Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance)
Established 6 years after NATO, the Warsaw Pact was formed as communist military alliance to maintain power over Eastern Europe. The Soviet Union gained both control over its neighboring European nations and indicated to other nations that it was a major military and political force. Although the ground forces of possessed by the Warsaw Pact were far superior to those of NATO, their technology soon fell far behind. After many democratic revolutions within the Warsaw Pact it was labeled "nonexistent" in 1991.
